HISTORY OF THE EMERGENCE
OF EARLY
THEOLOGICAL ISSUES IN ISLAMIC WORD
( A Brief History
of The Development on Political Thought to Theology )*
Presented by :
Asep Risyana
Abstact
This working paper will be
focused on the history of appearing theological problems in early depelopment
of thought in Islamic word. It was Kharijites sect, wich historically recorded
has extreme political views and theology have regarded as responsible sect on
the origin of appearing political problem wich in its turn influence their
theological belief. The question that will be answered here is what causes the Kharijites
even not only has extremely political view and theological beliefe but also
hard behaviour even tend to cruel. They, like abu Zahrah said that they like to
take risk life in danger altought there were no impeller to do that. Ironically
they very cruel and lenient no at all with muslim fellow that different idea,
but very tolerant with ahl al-alkitab (another holly book follower like Jews
and Ciritians).But before analazing the problem above, here lets us begin by
descripting beforehand abouth the genesis and development of khawarij, with
pressure in its genesis in order to see how political problems have been legitimated
by theological beliefe clearly.But, furthermore beside technical reason the
limited page yard to converse elaborate abouth growth of Khawarij and its period to hereafter, however
in this working paper elucidating of political idea and theological doctrine of
khawarij itself does not discuss peculiarly, but only some doctrine laid open
on the historical aprouches discussion abouth growth of its self idea. That
attitude is taken by here, because this handing out hence by using historical
approach, non doctrinal approach.
I. Introduction
Seem rather odd to say, that in
Islam as a religion the first issues wich arose in its history have occured in
the field of politic not in theology. But furthermore this political issues
immediately increased to the theological issues. For this, to become clear it’s
necessary for us to return and look back on the incident in the early history
of Islam, specially to the first phase in its development. While the Prophet
Muhammad Peace Be Upon Him announced the Islamic teaching that inspired by the
revelation from God Almighty in Macca, while this town has social system that
lied under the leadership of Quraishy tribe, or exactly steered by the hans of
the rulers of Quraishy tribe.
As we know historically, that in the second half of six century A.D. The
route of trading between east and west was moved from Persian Gulf – Euprath in
the north, and Red Sea , and Neil valley in the
south to Yemmen-Hijaj-Syriac. And the wars was opten occured between two great
super power empire, Bizantine and Persian have made the north route no peaceful
and unprofitable for trading. May be also Egypt has influenced by the wars of these
two great super power empire Byzantin and Persian, it was in chaotic situation
wich it effect to the route of trading throught the Neil valley was also unfavorable.
Furthermore, by moving this trading route between the east and the west to
Arabian Peninsula, Macca wich have been located in the central line of the
trading trip, than kown as a city of trading soon. The tradersmans and businesmans
went to the south for buying merchandise from the eastern, and wich they brought
to the north for sale in Syriac.1 It
was described by The Qoran :
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Their covenant (overing)
journeys By winter and summer.
After this transferable trading route througt this, in turn Macca be a wealthy trading town. Trading activities
in this town has been dominated by Quraisy tribes, and as the rich and
influenced people they were also with their arms steered the governance of
Macca, so that the governance can be runed through under the control of tribes
coucil that whose member are consist of the each tribes leaders who have been elected according
by their wealth and influence in society. The realy power lies under the contol
of tradesmans, wich this great tradesmans for guarding their interests they
have built the strength of solidarity between them and its visible effects
could be seen in their resistence against to the Prophet Muhammad, and then reluctantly
the Prophet, the companions and His followers left Macca to go to Yasrib in
year 622 A.D. As we know historically that Muhammad was not one of those rich people, altought He was a Quraisy, but economically
He was a very simple, even when Prophet Muhammad’s childhood reluctantly to
work as a sheep guardian. But in Yasrib the situation was unlike Macca. This
town was not city of the traders, but city of the farmer and the communities
are not homogenous. In Yasrib was composed by heterogently peoples that consist
of the Arabian and Jewish peoples, and its Arabian consist of two tribes al-Aush
and khajraj wich between these two tribes group there were often complict
to determine and elect the leader of Yasrib society. This chaotic atmosphere was
not suitable and unpeaceable, because of that for stoping and facing the
problematical affairs and acutely complict, they were hoped a netral mediator (hakam)
who would be mediate their complict netrally.
Immediatelly the leaders of both
tribes were left for having pilgrimage to Macca, they were heard and knew
abouth the position of Prophet Muhammad, and in one enconter with Him, so they
requesting the Holly Prophet must be moved to Yasrib. By seeing how hard the
chalange from the Macca’s tradesmans that faced by Him, lastly he move to Yasrib.
After the Holly Prophet moving to Yasrib, this town have been named by Madinah
al-Nabi the name that Known until now. And in this new town the Prophet
Muhammad play his role soon as mediator (hakam) between both compilcted
tribes (al-Aush and al-Khajraj). And then by the slowly from mediator,
later gradually the Holly Prophet being a leader of Madinah society,
furthermore, after Madinah people except its Jewish population converse to
Islam.2
From this brief history, finally we
can make a conclusion that during in Macca the Holy Prophet Muhammad only has the
function as religious leader, and has no the function of leader of politic or governmental
head, because at that time the political power in Macca could not been imposed yet
by Him. On contrary Madinah, the Holly Propet position, besides be a religious
leader also be a governmental leader. He was be succesfull while built the
foundation of political power that have been disobeyed in this town, while in
Macca before, there has no political power.
While The Holy Prophet passed away
on year 632 A.D, the Madinah reign was not limited in that town only, but can be said that
it was covering almost Arabian peninsula . Islamic state in this time like described by
W.Monggomary Watt, was an united of Arabian tribes who tied and alliance with the Holly prophet by all its various form
with the Madinah Siciety and Macca
society might also as its core.3 Islam in
its self, according to R.Strothmann, besides a religious system, it also a
political system and the Holly Prophet Muhammad, as well as the masangger of God He was also become a
statesman or an expert of state structure.4
So that it was not strange manner, if
Madinah society while the Holly Prophet Muhammad passed away they were very
busied of thingking abouth who would be replace Him as a new borned state
leader, for them determine a new leader is more interesting than the burying process
of the Holy Prophet, and it just regarded as a second affair, From this
situation, finally we can guess its result, it was soon appearing khilafah
affair, including who would be taked over the Holly Prophet position as the
leader of state, because as a masengger of God or as a prophet, Muhammad of couse
have never been replaced by any one.
According to the history it was said,
that Abu Bakr have been agreed by people of Madinah for being a succsessor or (Khalifah
al-Nabi) to lead the state of
madinah, and then he replaced by Umar Ibn al Khatab, and Umar by Utsman Ibn
Affan. Usman was a rich Quraisy tradesman, his family was consist of people who
aristocratic of Macca, wich by their trading experience and has adequate knowledge
of administration, so naturally their knowledge is very useful in leading and
controlling administrative regions. And they have applied it adequately to
control the administrative regions out
side of Arabian Peninsula wich entered and
growth under the political power of Islam. The historian describes that Utsman as
a weakness leader and no adequately capable to steering and resisting that his wealthy
and influential families’s ambitions. He raised them to become governor
position in Islamic subjugated territory. The Governors have raised by Umar Ibn
al-Khatab, the Caliph which was well known as strong figure and was not
emphasizing to his family interest, they dropped by Utsman from their position.
The political policies that have under
taken by Utsman gradually appearing unprofitable reaction for him self, and in
its turn, the companions of Holy Prophet who at the first supported Utsman,
when they saw the lack of appropriate
actions and belived that Utsman Ibn Affan had deviated from the path of justice
and truth in the last day of his Caliph, tends choise to leaving the third
caliph. So that in this chaotic moment the peoples who from the beginning want
to be the caliph or want their candidates to be the caliph begun to take a
chance to actaulized their ambition. Spontaneously the antipathy reaction have occurred
in the part the size of province. In Egypt for example, as a reaction to Umar
ibn Ash’s succession from the Governor of Egypt who has replaced by Abdullah
Ibn Sa’ad Ibn Abi Sarh as a one of Utsmans Family member as a governor in
Egypt, abouth five hundred rebels assembled and then moved to Madina. And
further situasion in Madinah has effected to Utsman murdering by the the leader
of this revolt of Egypt
II. History
of Kharijites : From Political’s issues to Theological
After Utsman’s death Ali was one
great candidate or the strongest candidate
who ultimately become the fourth caliph. But soon, he faced the challange
wich coming from the leaders who want also to be the caliph , particularly
Thalhah and Zubeir from Macca who have supported and endorsed by Aisya. But the
challenge that come from Aisya, Thalhah and Zubeir can be stoped by Ali in a battle
that have occurred in Iraq Damascus Egypt
In the battle was occored in 657
A.D, Ali’s forces met Muawiyah’s at the battle of Shifin, initially, went against
Muawiyah. On the brink of defeath, Muawiyah directed his army to hoist Qur’an
in their lances. This initiated discord among some of those who were in Ali’s
Army. Muawiyah wanted to put the dispute between the two sides to arbitration
in accordance with the Qur’an. A group of Ali’s Army mutinied, demanding that
Ali agree to Muawiyah’s proposal. As a result, Ali reluctantly presented his
own representative for arbitration. The mutineers, however, put forward Abu
Musa al-Ash’ari against Ali’ wishes. Muawiyah put forward Amr Ibn al-Ash. Abu
Musa al-Ash’ari was convinced by Amr to pronounce Ali’s removal as caliph even
though Ali’s caliphate was not meant to be the issue of concern in arbitration.
The mutineer saw the turn of event as a fundamental betrayal of principle,
espesially since they had initiated it.9
This occurrence however was
unpropitious to Ali’s side, although actually the real caliph legally was only
Ali, but Muawiyah, his position is not more than a governor the size of
province who has not obedient to Ali as the caliph. By the arbitration, his
position have been increased to be
illegal caliph. It was not strange if this agreement denied by Ali and did not put
his position until he murdered in year
661 AD. Actually when Ali’s reluctanly to receive the arbitration that proposed
by Amr al Ash, it was not have been agreed by another Army. According to them, this problem
can not be desisived by human arbitration. Because the decision came from God
by return to the law that lied in the Qur’an, by citting from Qur’anic’s vesses
that The decision is only for Allah, or there is no rule but Allah, and then wich it was used being
as their slogan.9
They believe that Ali Ibn Abi Thaleb committed a grave sin and leave Ali’s side. The mutineer saw the turn of event of
arbitration as a fundamental betrayal of principle, espesially since they had initiated it ; a large group
of them traditionally believed to be 12.000. mainly from Banu Hanifah and Banu
Tamim tribes repudiated Ali. Citing the verse. “No rule but God’s” an
indication that a caliph is not a representative of God, this group turned on
both Ali and Muawiyah. Opposing Muawiya’s rebellion against one day considered
to be the rightfull caliph, and opposite Ali for accepting to subject his
legitimate authority to arbitration, thus giving away what was not his, but
rather the right of the people. They become known historically as Kharijites as
Arabic singular; and in Arabic plural Khawarij, it was derived from Arabic word
it’s mean same one or group who seceded from Ali side.
Because Ali have agreed with the
arbitration, Kharijites’s side believe that Ali committed a grave sin, so they
repudiated Ali. Furthermore Ali now faced two enemies, it was Muawiyah in one
side and Kharijites in another. Cause often attacked by these two side, for the
Ali focused on his effort to destroyed the rebellion kharijites firstly, but
after the Kharijites rebellion can be destroyed, and Ali defeated the remaining
rebels in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658 but Ali’s army been teredness to faced
Muawiya’s army continuously, espscially some Khrijites survided and, in 661,
ultimately assassinated. Lastly, however Muawiya established his power in Damascus
The issues has occored in the field
of politic as described above, lastly in it’s turn brought out on the arising
of theological’s issues. From this begun who was being disbeliever (kafir)
and who was not being disbelidever, its mean who was being seceder and still
being in Islam. And hence the Kharijites thought that the outcome of conplict
can only be decided in battle (by God) and not in negotiations (by human
beings). They thus deemed the arbitrator (Abu Musa al-Ash’ari and Amr Ibn Ash,
the leader who appointed the arbitrator (Ali and Muawiya) and all those who
agreed on the arbitration (all companions of Ali and Muawiya) as sedecers (kafir).
And they wrongly believed that all participant of Battle of Jamal including
Thalha, Zubeir (companions of Muhammad) and Aisya had commited a Kabira (Major
sin in Islam). Thus Kharijites say that who
all agreed in arbitration and Jamal’s battle participant having breached the
rules of Qur’an, as al-Qur’an said :
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The translation: if any do fail to judge By (the light of)
what God Hath revealed, they are( no better than) Unbiliever 11.
By citing this verse, Kharijites brought
it as a slogan that decision is only for
Allah or no rule but Allah, because the fourth muslim leader wich
mentioned above have been regarded as unbeliever, actually they were sedeced
from Islam, or exactly apostated (murtad) and must be murdered. And
thus Kharijites said to have organized stimultaneous attempts against Ali, Abu
Musa al-Ash’ari, Muawiya and Amr ibn al-Ash as the four men were in their view
the main scourses of strife within the Muslim community, but historically were
only succseful in assassinating Ali. Thus in furthermore development Kharijites
were the first sect to appear in history of Islam, splitting up into more than twenty
different sub-sects, however, the major sub-sect of the kharijites are seven : 1). Al-Muhakimah, 2). Al-Zariqah,
3).al-Najdat, 4). al-Sufriah, 5). Al-Ajaridah, 6) al-Ibadiah 7) al-Thu’alabah,
wich for more explanation we have to explained it peculiarly. With its
development, lastly effected to the concept of
Kafir, wich it concept also changed. Some one who regarded as kafir
was no more only who do fail to judge by what God Hath received, but some
one who had committed a major sin or capital sinner (murtakib al-kaba’ir),
also regarded as seceder (kafir).
And then who committed in capital
sinner’s issues, it was effected a great
influence in growth of further Islamic theological issues. The issues are, is
still be regarded as Muslim or Kafir while some one who committed in major sin
?. And in its turn, these issues appered three major school of theology in
Islamic world that historically known as Kharijites, Murji’ah and Mu’tazilah.
The first, Kharijites believed that some one who committed in tha major sin or
a capital sinner was kafir, its mean has seceded or apostated from Islam, and
he mus be murdered. But the second school Murji’ah believed that still being a Muslim
and not Kafir, although committed in major sin or a capital sinner, they
submissed to God only to furnish or firgive a capital sinner in the day of the
jugdement (akhirat). And the last sect was Mu’tazila, that reputiated
Kharijites and Murji’a thought, in their view, some one who committed in major
sin was not Mu’min and Kafir also, but positioned between Mu’min and kafir,
wich in Arabic literature known as al-manzilah wa manzilatain (an unique
position between two positions).11
Beside that also appeared two sect in Islamic’s theology that famous known
as al-Qadariah and al-Jabariah.
Al-Qdariah believed that human has free will and free act, and Al-Jabariah
opposed with that faith, wich they believed that human has no free in its
will and act. Human, as al-Jabariah’s view, in all its will and act being
predestinated by God. Thus from its reason, why al-Jabariah kown as
fatalisme or predestination.
Furtehrmore, by translating Greec’s
philosophies and sciences book into Arabic, Mu’tazila has been
influenced by Greec’s thought in the use of ratio or intellect wich it has
supreme position in ancient Greec’s culture. Believing and using the intellect
or ratio has brought by Mu’tazila on the field of theology, so it was not a
strange manner if Mu’tazila’s theology views could be characterized as liberal
theology, but its mean, althought they emphasized by using the ratio, they no
escaping revelation (wahyu). And according with Qadariah and Jabariah,
of course, Mu’tazilah as a sect that believe in the power and liberation of
ratio can be entered as Qadariah sect.
As a rational and liberal Theology,
mu’tazilaisme has interested the intectualists in circle of Abasid Islamic
Reign in early nine century A.D, so that the caliph Al-Ma’mun (813-833 A.D) the
son of caliph Harun al-Rasyid (768-809 A.D) in the year 827 A.D. has recognized
Mu’tazila’s theology as a official scholl of theology of state. Because as
official theology in the government, Mu’tazilaism begun announced their views
and teachings in oppressive ways, particulary on their view were said that the
Qur’an is created being (mahluk), its mean that Quran was created, not eternal
in the fast (qadim) or as uncreated.12
Mu’tazilaism as a rational’s theology in its growth and development it has
faced a great chalanges from the traditionalist one, especially from Habalism,
they were followers of Ibn Hambal sect. Incuisition, as a radical politic of
announcing of Mu’tazilas tend to lessen, after Al-Ma’mum passed away in 833
A.D. and lastly the Mu’tazilahism as state official sect of theology has been
stoping by Al-Mutawakkil in 865 A.D. However, Mutazilaism return to their
position formerly, but now they have the larger number of opposants of in
Islamic’s world. Its opposition furthermore has shaped on traditionalist
theology’s sect wich has formulated by Abu Hasan al-Asy’ari (935 A.D). Since al-Asy’ari,
him self as a Mu’tazilian, but furthermore, according to his admitting after
seing in the dream that Mu’tazila’s teachings it has been stamped by the Holy
Prophet Muhammad as astrayed teaching then lastly al-Asy’ari leave it and
shaped the new teachings wich histrically well kown as Asy’ariyat’ theology.
Beside al-Asyriat’ theology also appeared in Samarkand Samarkand , it was more
less liberally and secondly was the branch of Bukhara
However, the major theology’s
sects that arised in Islamic world was the sect of Kharijites, Mu’tazilates,
As’ariyates and Maturidiyates. The sect of kharijites, Murjiates Mu’tazilates
had no more shaped sect in history. The sect was still in exist until now was the sects of Asy’arites, and
Maturidiates, and both was called as ahl Sunnah wa al-Jama’ah. The Maturidiyah’s teachings more have been
followed by the moslems who have sected by Hanafian’s sect, but As’ariyates
commontly have been followed by another Sunni’s Moslem. And by the reentry of rationalism
into Islamic world, if originally it have entered by ancient Greec’s culture,
but now rationalism entered by modern western’s cultures, so that Mu’tazila’s
teaching be reemerged especially in Islamic’s intellectualists who was westernized
education, and then the frase of Neo Mu;tazilas have used in its writing on
Islam.13
III.
Conclusion
From the explainings above now
we can conclude our elucidating that the politicals thought and the thological
issues that appeared in Islamic world have caused by socio-cultural background’s
issues. It would be seen in the case of Kharijites. As the Badawian’s Arab, the
Kharijites is characterized as the hard hearted people, radicalist, and brave, with
their bravery they are never fears to risk life in danger thought no impeller
to do it. The attribute of Qurra that addressed for them, it was no mean as the
Qur’an memorizers, but it was addressed them as uncultured people.
Lastly, we can take a most of the
precious learning that the political issues if shaped and justified by the
theological understanding, it would be appeared a biger dangerous, moreover if
it did by the peoples who have a limited and narrow mindedness in the understanding and mastering on Islamic
theaching. Because the limited and narrow mindedness on Islamic understanding
it would be appeared not only exrememely in its thought but in attitudes and
actions.
* This paper presented at opening weekly
discussion program on philoshopy and Islamic thought that held by the young
interdiscipinair sholars Forum that intended to study on the Islamic intelecual
heritage including the Philosophy and Islamic Thought. And furthermore this
forum named as Philosophy and Islamic Tought’s Forum (ITF).
1 For Further explanation abouth this
trading route between the eastern and the west and its influence to Macca, read
more in Philip K. Hitti, History of
The Arab, London, Mac Millan & Co. Ltd. 1964, Chapter IV-VII, passim,
Bernard Lewis, The Arab in History, New York Harper & Row, 1960.
Chapter I, Passim, W.Monggomary Watt, Mohammet a la Mecque, translated
by F. Douryeil, Paris, Payot, 1958, p. 21-43.
2 For Further Comperehension on it, Read
Harun Nasution, Teologi Islam : Aliran-aliran, Sejarah, Analisa Perbandingan, Jakarta
3 W. Monggomary Watt, Muhammad Prophet
and Statesman, London , Oxford University
4Look
Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam, Leiden
5 See Also Harun Nasution, Teologi
Islam : Aliran-aliranm Sejarah, Analisa Perbandingan, (Jakarta
6
Ibid,.
7
Al-Thabari, Tarikh al-Muluk wa al-Umam, (Cairo : Dar al-Ma’arif, 1963),
Book V, p. 7
8
Ibid,. p.353-357-359.
9 Ibid,. Book IV, p. 555
9 Ibid,. Book IV, p. 55 dan 57.
10 Ameer Ali, A Short History of The
Saracens, (London
11 For further explanation and
interpretation abouth this verse, see A. Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur’an :
Translation and Commentary, Dar’ al-Qiblah li al-Tsaqafah al-Islamiyah,
Jidah al-Arabiyah al-Su’udiyah . See also, Ahmad Musthafa al-Maraghi, Tafsir
al-Maraghi, Dar Ihyâ al-Turâtsi al-Arabi, Juz VI, p. 122-127
11 Ahmad Mahmud Shubhy Fi ‘Ilm
al-Kalam, : Dirasat al-Falsafat li Arâi al-Islamiyat fi Ushul al-Dîn, book
I (Mu’tazilat), (Beirut Bandung
12 Qadim, exactly its mean eternal
in the past, and its opposite is baqi, its mean eternal in the future,
see the foot notes in Harun Nasution, op.cit, p. 10, 46, 48, 137
etc.
13 For example The India Islamic
modernist it called as neo Mu’tazilates by the western writer or Islamologists.
For further information look Robert Caspar who has written his researching
result on the paper wich it’s title “Le Reneouveau du Mo’tazilisme” in
Institute Dominicain d Etudes Orientales du Caire Melanges, Iv (1957).
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